Keywords: open systems, closed systems, cybernetics, political science

System is a word used to describe any "experience-cluster" that we can map as a set of interacting elements over time (www.well.com, 2002). Identifying the flow of information can identify a system. This is especially unique because information can flow from A to B, while still remaining at A. "System theory is the transdisciplinary study of the abstract organization of phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of existence. It investigates both the principles common to all complex entities and the models that can be used to describe them (Rosnay, 2002)." In laymen terms system theory can be defined as the study of systems used to track the flow of information, in order to solve a problem. System theory has been linked to a number of subjects. This is a general approach that is shared by all modern theories.

Lawrence Henderson may be mentioned as a "forerunner" of systems thinking. He majored in biochemistry as an undergraduate. After he graduated from Harvard Medical School in 1902, he did his field study in chemistry in Europe. He, then, returned to Harvard to teach biochemistry. As his studies went on, he turned to philosophy, and then later on to the study of sociology. His sociological writings were not very popular, but through his lectures at Harvard and his association with the Society of Fellows, his influence became important to a number of social scientist and scholars. "For Henderson, theoretical concepts used in science are constructs having only and always a provisional value (Lilienfeld, 1978, p.12)."

Walter B. Cannon was a friend and also a colleague of Henderson. Most of Cannon’s writings recorded his medical findings as a physician and a professor at Harvard. Cannon wrote "The Wisdom of the Body." In this piece, Canon develops ideas that were influential in the development of systems thinking. The main theme of this book was the concept of "homeostasis: a variety of mechanisms exist in the organism to maintain fixed levels of blood sugar, blood proteins, fat, calcium, as well as adequate supply of oxygen, a constant body temperature. Homeostasis is a condition that varies, but relatively stays constant. In another book that Cannon writes, he argues the point that this same concept could be used to examine other concepts like industrial, domestic, or social organizations (Lilienfeld, 1978, p.15)."

The work of men like Henderson and Cannon is generally considered by systems theorist as preparatory work. The formulations of a concept of open systems theory by Ludwig von Bertalanffy first established systems thinking as a major scientific movement. Like Henderson and Cannon, Von Bertalanffy began his work as a scientist. His first formulation of systems theory emerges full blown in his Modern Theories of Development and in his Problems of Life. The work that gave rise to the theory was his essay entitled "The Theory of Open-Systems in Physics and Biology." "He sought to establish systems thinking on a biological rather than a philosophical basis. Von Bertalaffy makes it clear in his writings that he believes that physics, biology, psychology, and physiology all cultivate the general system theory (Lilienfeld, 1978, p.17)." Von Bertalanffy was reacting against reductism and he was also attempting to revive the unity of science. He stressed the fact that real systems are open to their environment, and also interact with the environment. He also emphasized that the can develop new properties that can result in continual evolution. "System theory focuses on the parts that will make the idea a whole. Systems theory is closely related to cybernetics, and systems dynamics which models changes in a network of coupled variables (Rosnay, 2002)."

Open systems are seen as highly complex, interdependent, and characterized by an expectation of change and uncertainty and change, internally and externally. "Open systems theory can be defined as a theory of organization that views organizations not as simple "closed" bureaucratic structures separate from their surroundings, but as highly complex entities, facing considerable uncertainties in their operations and constantly interacting with their environment. This system also assumes that organizational components will seek "equilibrium" among the forces pressing on them and their own responses to their forces (Malikovich-Gordon, 2001, p.165)."

Von Bertalanffy sums up the main concepts of an open-systems theory in his essay, "The Theory of Open Systems in Physics and Biology." They are as follows:

1. "The characteristic state of a living organism is that of an open system." It is open in the sense that it exchanges material with its environment; by this import and export of materials, there is change of components. Previous conception of the organism as maintaining a state of equilibrium must yield to the idea of the steady state.

2. The concept of the open system maintaining itself in a steady state represents a departure from the concept of classical physics, which have dealt with, for the most part with closed systems. According to the second law of thermodynamics, a closed system must attain a state of equilibrium with maximum entropy and minimum free energy. But under certain conditions, an open system may maintain itself under a steady state.

3. The mathematics of the steady state may be developed based upon the nature of the chemical reaction going on within the system, some of which may be reversible. The mathematics of the import of materials into the system, and their use for the creation of specific compounds-some of which are retained in the system, others of which are transported outside the system-indicates (a) that the composition of the system in the steady state remains constant even though some of the reactions are reversible; (b) the steady state ratio of the components depends only on the systems constants and not on the environmental conditions and (c) that the system may, in presence of a stimulus from outside, a disturbance, manifest forces that counteract the disturbance of the steady state. To maintain itself in its steady state the system requires a constant supply of energy.

4. A profound difference between most inanimate, or closed, systems and living systems is expressed by the concept of "equifinality." In an inanimate system its initial conditions produces determine the final state of the system. A change in the initial condition produces a change in the final conditions. A different behavior is shown among vital phenomena: Under many conditions the same final state may be reached from different initial conditions in different ways. Thus, in its early stages the embryo of a sea urchin may be altered by the transplantation of some of its cells; the result will be a sea urchin indistinguishable from one whose embryo has not been so altered. Though equifinality is not a proof of vitalism, it can be shown that equilfinality is not to found in the closed system, which is why it is not generally found in the inanimate systems. The equations of steady state systems show that the initial conditions do not appear in the steady state, whose values are always the same, "being determined only by the constants of the reactions and of the inflow and outflow." In some biological cases equifinality can be formulated quantitatively (Lilienfeld, 1978, p.19)."

System theory includes and is also more abstract than cybernetics. "Cybernetics can be defined as a theory of control systems based on communication between systems and environment and within the system, and control the system’s function in regard to environment (www.well.com, 1996)." To clear this up, cybernetics can also be defined as using loops in order to define the flow of information. Cybernetics emphasizes feedback that triggers appropriate adaptative responses throughout an organization. This is also the same principle that a thermostat operates under.

Norbert Wiener, the founder of cybernetics argued that this science would have an immense impact on civilization, not merely in the form of automating a great variety of functions previously performed by human labor, but even through its philosophical import. Weiner also argued that cybernetics, in its full implications had much to offer even theology, affecting our conceptions of God and humanities. In his first general summa in the field, cybernetics, Weiner offered a mathematical basis for cybernetics and drew some of his implications for society. Weiner first coined the word "cybernetics" in 1945. When he first coined this term, he defined it as "control and communication in the animal and the machine." Norbert Weiner had been teaching mathematics at MIT since 1919. Soon after his arrival, he became acquainted with the neurophysiologist Arturo Rosenblueth. Out of his new friendship, cybernetics was born.

W. Walsh Ashby can also be included as one of the men who developed cybernetics. His major missionary works are An Introduction to Cybernetics and Design for a Brain. The major purpose was to account for change and behavior that appears to show "purpose," "memory," "foresight," in purely determinist and mechanistic terms. Ashby constructs a set of concepts derived from cybernetics in order to do so. The basic concept of cybernetics is patterns of change; the basic patterns must be classified and appropriate concepts must be derived. Cybernetics studies the determinativeness of ways of behaving, not the material substances that do the behaving. It is based on the assumption that complex systems can be studied by monitoring the state of the machine taken as a whole, without specification of certain parts, and that a theory of unanalyzed states can be rigorously developed. A concept of understanding cybernetics is that of understanding stability. Stability carries various meanings.

Invariant. Some aspects of a system that is unchanging although the system as a whole passes through a series of changes.

Equilibrium. At certain values, a transformation does not cause the operands to change.

Cycle. A transformation may take a representative point of a system repeatedly around a sequence of values.

Stable Region. If variable b goes to variable g while g goes to b for each step of the transformation, no new state is generated.

Karl Deutsch of Yale University and David Easton of the University of Chicago are the leading representatives of the systems approach in political science. Deutsch describes the nerves of the government to tie that in with the systems theory.

Deutsch begins by describing the history of sociopolitical thought before the emergence of the cybernetic-systems theory approach, and the outdated models that underlie them, among them the mechanistic and the organisms.

In order to adapt to the language of the systems theory with the language of political science, Deutsch applies two steps. The first step is the fact that Deutsch tries to "cybernize" subjective and psychological process; that is the concepts of consciousness and will, memory and recognition, must be translated into cybernetic terms. The second step involves attributing "will" and "consciousness" as defined above to "the political system." A society receive information, "learn," make decisions, adapt to their environments by means of effector units, and evolves (Lilienfeld, 1978, p.213).

David Easton regards Deutsch’s work as "subtle and penetrating (Liliefeld, 1978, p. 217)." He adopted his own synthesis of operations research, cybernetics, and general systems theory. The following is now an obligatory format for all programmatic documents: "The current mood of the worlds is best described as one of malaise; the appearance of atomic weapons has lead to a distrust of science, even of political science; the condition of American political science is examined and found wanting, and exhorted to rise and meet new challenges. In order to better understand the system, a political scientist must examine the entire process of policy making according to Easton (Lilienfeld, 1978, p.217)."

Systems theory is not a very complicated subject once it is studied and analyzed. Systems analysis, developed independently of systems theory, applies systems principles to aid a decision maker with problems of identifying, reconstructing, optimizing, and controlling a system, while taking into account multiple objectives, constraints and resources. It aims to specify possible courses of action, together with the risk, cost, and benefits (Rosnay, 2002).

Gordon, George J., Milakovich, Michael E. &. (2001). Public Administration in America. Thompson Learning Incorporated.

Heylighen, Francis, and Joslyn Cliff. (1992). "What is Systems Theory?" Retrieved on 10/16/02 http://pedpmc1.vub.ac.be/SYSTHEOR.html

Lilienfeld, Robert. (1978) The Rise in System’s Theory. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated.

Rosnay, J. (2000). "History of Cybernetics and Systems Science." Retrieved 10/16/02 http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/CYBSHIST.html

(1996, August). "Cybernetics and the Systems Theory Defined." Retrieved 10/16/02 http://www.well.com/userlabscurriculum.html

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