Jeremy Bentham's Hedonic CalculusbyMitch MeredithHedonic calculus, as the name implies, is a theory not understood by many. The average person may have never even heard of it. Jeremy Bentham, the utilitarian founder of this theory, stated that nature has placed mankind under two sovereign masters, pleasure and pain (Bentham, 1948, 1). We, as humans, seek to gain immediate pleasure and avoid imminent pain. Bentham also introduced his infamous principle of utility which states the greatest happiness of the greatest number (Allen, 1967, 188). It is from these observations that the theory of Hedonic calculus is based. Bentham’s Biography Jeremy Bentham was born into a wealthy family on February 15th, 1748 in Houndsditch, London, England (www.utm.edu, 2003). He was the son and grandson of attorneys. Bentham was a child prodigy. By the age of five he was reading Latin and Greek under his father’s direction (Costigan, 1967, p. 2). His mother, who he loved dearly, died when he was eleven and he was admitted to Queens College, Oxford when he was 12 and graduated when he was 16. Bentham was an intensely lonely child. He had no friends his own age. He substituted friends with books, which he grew to love. Bentham was also a very tiny and weak child. He remembers trying to play cricket at one time but stated that he was too dwarfish and weak to enjoy it (Costigan, 1967, p.3). The industrial revolution occurred while Bentham was growing up and it caused major social, political and economic change. Upon graduation from Oxford, Bentham entered law school and was called to the bar in 1769, which he hated. Bentham’s father pushed him into pursuing employment as an attorney. Bentham had a weak voice, and an unimposing presence in the courts and was well advised to give up the practice of law (Costigan, 1967, p.6). After his short career as a lawyer, Bentham determined to devote his life to the reformation of the law. Throughout his active career, which lasted over sixty years, Bentham was known for many books and roles. Perhaps his best known books are his Fragment on Government and Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Burns, 1968, p. vi). Bentham authored a wide and huge assortment of books that covered almost everything involved in England’s justice system. Interestingly, Bentham made very little effort to publish much of what he wrote. He is credited as being one of the founders of utilitarianism, as well as being a well known political activist, legal scholar, social philosopher and linguist. Challenging Blackstone Bentham wanted to construct a scientific foundation for law. He saw his work as having two goals. He wanted to provide a secure foundation of theory for any possible legal system and criticize existing legal systems in the light of this theoretical foundation (Warnock, 1969, p. 11). Bentham was more concerned with legal and penal reform than an explanation of criminal behavior. While at Oxford, Bentham came across a professor of law with whom he greatly disagreed. The professor, Sir William Blackstone, symbolized Oxford and was considered the greatest legal mind of the age (Costigan, 1967, p.4). To challenge the leading authority in law gave Bentham great pleasure and confidence. Bentham was disgusted at how justice was being executed. In his first book, A Fragment on Government (1776), Bentham attacked Blackstone’s immensely popular Commentaries on the Law of England. At first, the book was circulated anonymously and no one knew who authored it. Bentham’s father could not keep the secret and soon everyone knew who authored the book (Costigan, 1967, p.5). Bentham argued that Blackstone had an obsession with the “rule of law” and this prevented passing new legislation which was needed for a changing society (http://cepa.newschool.edu, 2003). Bentham argued that all laws, ancient and modern, should be evaluated according to the principle of “utility”. He felt that a law should be deemed good or bad based on whether or not it increased the general happiness of the population. Bentham felt that it was time for change and he was the person to make it happen. Hedonic Calculus The pursuit of happiness is the fundamental purpose of human life. Bentham consisted in promoting whatever factors led to the increase of pleasure and in suppressing those which produced pain (Costigan, 1967, p. 8). In chapter 4 of his Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), Bentham sketched his idea of hedonistic calculus. As his theory implied, law should enforce actions and dispose sentences whereby this maximizing of pleasure and minimizing of pain could be most effective. In short, Bentham stated that pleasures and pains, which exist only in individuals, could be constructed into a calculus of value (www.utm.edu, 2003). Hedonic calculus considers seven factors which include: 1. The intensity of the pleasure or pain. 2. The duration of the pleasure or pain. 3. The certainty or uncertainty of the pleasure or pain. 4. The remoteness of any pleasure or pain. (Propinquity) 5. The chances of the same effects being repeated. (Fecundity) 6. The chances of the same effects not being repeated. (Purity) 7. The number of people who will be affected by any pleasure or pain arising as a result of the action(s) in question. (www.faithnet.org.uk, 2003)
These seven factors weigh up the potential pleasure or pain which might arise from moral actions to decide the best options. Ideally, this formula should determine which act has the best tendency and is therefore right. Bentham hoped this theory could be used for criminal law reform. Incorporating it into criminal law seemed almost too easy. Given a certain crime, it would be possible to work out the minimum penalty necessary for its prevention (http://faculty.mc3.edu, 2003). Bentham argues that all human actions arise from this theory of hedonic calculus. According to him, almost all actions could be placed into this equation. Altruism, love, asceticism, a desire for freedom, duty, faith, obedience to law, etc. are all able to be reduced and placed in pleasure and pain calculations (http://cepa.newschool.edu, 2003). Bentham drew a huge and extremely complex table of pleasures and pains. This table and his theory of hedonic calculus was the basis of Utilitarian morality (Costigan, 1967, p.8). Human Nature Closely related to Bentham’s hedonic calculus is his view of human nature. Bentham believed that morals and legislation could be described scientifically, but an accurate description requires an account of human nature (http://www.utm.edu, 2003). Human nature, explained by his hedonic calculus, takes into account the two primary motives of pleasure and pain. Naturally, Bentham explains, individuals exhibit a natural rational self interest. Simply stated, an individual’s interest is predominant over social interest. An individual wants what will maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain regardless of the effects it has on society. Individuals are only concerned with their well-being. Jeremy Bentham also thought the nature of a human person can be described without social relationships (http://www.utm.edu, 2003). To Bentham, the idea of “relation” and “community” are fictitious. Bentham views the individual as an atom and there is no self or individual greater than the human individual. He sees relationships with others as not being essential or important. In short, Bentham views the individual human being as conceived and pictures himself to be the supreme value (http://www.utm.edu, 2003). What is Utility? Simply defined, utility is property in an object whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good or happiness (Warnock, 1969, p. 17). An action is said to have utility when the tendency is has to augment the happiness of the community is greater than any it has to diminish it. Utility is also referred to as the greatest happiness or greatest-felicity principle (Mack, 1969, 53). It should be noted that no person’s utility counts more than anothers. According to Bentham, utility applies to every action whatsoever. Any action that does not promote the greatest happiness is morally wrong. Individuals try to gain happiness because the interests of others are bound up with their own problems. If pleasure is the good, it is irrespective of whose pleasure it is (http://www.utm.edu, 2003). The interpretation of utility is debatable and changes depending on scholars views. Summing things up, Bentham was a man of many different hats. He was an extremely hard worker who was years ahead of his generation. Up until his death when he was sixty, Bentham worked feverishly for many hours of the day on manuscripts and new ideas. He is credited with writing on almost every human interest, from algebra to zoology (Mack, 1969, xxix). He was born a conservative, but died a radical. His ideas no doubt inspired countless philosophers and reformers in numerous countries and continents. His theory of Hedonic Calculus is still debated, as is any theory, and has yet to be proven empirically valid. However, Jeremy Bentham is considered by many a genius and master innovator. Whatever the case, Bentham has staked his presence in the field of criminology and will be forever regarded as a great mind in history. References Bentham, Jeremy. (1948). The Principles of Morals and Legislation. (6th ed.). New York: Hafner Press. Costigan, Giovanni. (1967). Makers of Modern England: The Force of Individual Genius in History. New York: Macmillan. Allen, J.W. (1967). Jeremy Bentham. In The Social & Political Ideas of Some Representative Thinkers of the Revolutionary Era (2nd ed.) (pp. 181-200). New York: Barnes & Noble. Warnock, Mary. (1969). Introduction. In Utilitarianism on Liberty: Essay on Bentham (pp. 7-31). Cleveland: Meridian. Mack, Mary P. (1969). A Bentham Reader. New York: Pegasus. Burns, J.H. (1968). General Preface. In The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham: Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham (pp. v-viii). London: Athlone. Jeremy Bentham: The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved April 17, 2003 from http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/b/bentham.htm Jeremy Bentham. Retrieved April 17, 2003 from http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/bentham.htm Hedonic Calculus. Retrieved April 17, 2003 from http://faculty.mc3.edu/gpasquar/PHI_100/Publish/HC.htm The Hedonic Calculus. Retrieved April 17, 2003 from http://www.faithnet.org.uk/hedoniccalculusohp.htm This page available at: |